Research ethics govern the standards of conduct for scientific researchers. It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights and welfare of research participants.

The WHO Manual (Section XV.2) defines research with human subjects as 'any social science, biomedical, behavioural, or epidemiological activity that entails systematic collection or analysis of data with the intent to generate new knowledge, in which human beings:

Female genital mutilation (FGM) is a traditional harmful practice that involves the partial or total removal of external female genitalia or other injury to female genital organs for non-medical reasons.

It is estimated that more than 200 million girls and women alive today have undergone female genital mutilation in the countries where the practice is concentrated. In addition, every year, an estimated 3 million girls are at risk of undergoing female genital mutilation, the majority of whom are cut before they turn 15 years old.  

Affecting 200 million women and girls worldwide  
While the exact number of girls and women worldwide who have undergone female genital mutilation remains unknown, at least 200 million girls and women alive today have been subjected to the practice, according to data from the 30 countries where population level data exist. The practice is mainly concentrated in Western, Eastern, and North-Eastern regions of Africa, as well as in some countries in the Middle East and Asia.

No benefits, only harm
FGM has no medical justification and no health benefits. Rather, it increases the risks of physical, mental and sexual health complications, both in the short-term and in the long-term. It involves removing and   injuring healthy and normal female genital tissue, interfering with the natural functions of girls' and women's bodies. It is a harmful practice and is unacceptable from a human rights and public health perspective.

WHO is opposed to all forms of FGM. 

Drowning accounts for 75% of deaths in flood disasters. Flood disasters are becoming more frequent and this trend is expected to continue. Drowning risks increase with floods particularly in low- and middle-income countries where people live in flood prone areas and the ability to warn, evacuate, or protect communities from floods is weak or only just developing. 

Deaths also result from physical trauma, heart attacks, electrocution, carbon monoxide poisoning or fire associated with flooding. Often, only immediate traumatic deaths from flooding are recorded. 

The magnitude of the physical and human costs from floods can be reduced if adequate emergency prevention, preparedness, response and recovery measures are implemented in a sustainable and timely manner. 

WHO works with Member States to build resilient and proactive health systems that can anticipate the needs and challenges during emergencies so that they are more likely to reduce risks and respond effectively when needed.

As the health cluster lead for global emergencies, WHO works with partners to respond to:

Floods are the most frequent type of natural disaster and occur when an overflow of water submerges land that is usually dry. Floods are often caused by heavy rainfall, rapid snowmelt or a storm surge from a tropical cyclone or tsunami in coastal areas.

Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from organisms whose genetic material (DNA) has been modified in a way that does not occur naturally, e.g. through the introduction of a gene from a different organism. The technology is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”, sometimes also “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic engineering”. Currently available GM foods stem mostly from plants, but in the future foods derived from GM microorganisms or GM animals are likely to be introduced on the market.

All genetically modified foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and no effects on human health have been shown as a result of consuming GM foods. When discussing and developing GM foods, three main safety issues are considered. The first is allergenicity, meaning the ability of the edited genes or food product to cause an allergic reaction. No allergic effects have been found relative to GM foods currently on the market. The second is the transfer of genes from GM foods to the human digestive tract.

Access to sufficient amounts of safe and nutritious food is key to sustaining life and promoting good health. Unsafe food containing harmful bacteria, viruses, parasites or chemical substances can cause more than 200 different diseases – ranging from diarrhoea to cancers. Around the world, an estimated 600 million – almost 1 in 10 people – fall ill after eating contaminated food each year, resulting in 420 000 deaths and the loss of 33 million healthy life years (DALYs).

Cancer is a large group of diseases that can start in almost any organ or tissue of the body when abnormal cells grow uncontrollably, go beyond their usual boundaries to invade adjoining parts of the body and/or spread to other organs. The latter process is called metastasizing and is a major cause of death from cancer. A neoplasm and malignant tumour are other common names for cancer.

WHO supports Member States to prevent, manage and monitor CVDs by developing global strategies to reduce the incidence, morbidity and mortality of the disease. These strategies include reducing risk factors, developing standards of care, enhancing health system capacity to care for patients with CVD, and monitoring disease patterns and trends to inform national and global actions. WHO also works with partners and countries to developing cost effective and equitable health care innovations for managing the disease